The house of intellectuals

lord is one

2011-01-19T18:01:00.000-08:00

undying creator , with no fear or hate,
self existing person acheived by guru's grace
lord is one, truth is lord

true through out ages, and forever true,
slave to his will, we come and go,
lord is one, truth is lord.

some call him jesus, ram or allah,
some visit temples, church or mecca,
some read bible , vedas or koran,
some call them christians , hindu , musalman
lord is one, truth is lord

a few blessed ones contemplate shabad guru,
they meet the god, dhan dhan granth guru
lord is one, truth is lord.

ਪੰਜਾਬਿਯਤ, پنجابی , punjabiyat

2011-01-18T22:13:00.000-08:00

http://www.punjabri.com/2011/03/punjabiyat.html

Intra-abdominal Abscess

2010-11-14T15:32:00.000-08:00

Category: Clinical Vignette Poster Competition
Institution: The Chicago Medical School at Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science Program
Abstract Title: Intra-abdominal abscess...What to expect?
Abstract Text:

Case Presentation: A 58 year old male admitted with abdominal pain, acute onset, two days duration, 10/10, diffuse, sharp, non-radiating, no alleviating factors, associated nausea and an episode of vomiting. He had a similar but mild intensity pain in belly 2 weeks back which was symptomatically treated. He documented increased frequency of flatus and decreased appetite without any change in the bowel movement since 2 weeks. He denied weight loss, fever, chills, and recent use of drugs. His past history was significant for an episode of acute pancreatitis 20 years back, hepatitis C, sarcoidosis, alcohol abuse and cocaine dependence. On physical exam, he appeared calm without acute distress, T: 36.6 C, BP: 130/70 mm Hg, P: 86/min, RR: 16/min. Abdomen was soft, non-distended and tender with rebound tenderness. Bowel sounds were normal and rectal exam negative. Rest of the systemic examination was benign. Blood work revealed WBCs 4.4K/uL. Serum amylase, lipase, LFTs, urinalysis and UDS were negative. CT abdomen without IV contrast showed a mixed density lobular soft tissue mass about 3.0 x 2.2 cm at ileocecal junction with fat stranding consistent with loculated fluid/abscess or necrosis within the mass. As the mass was not accessible to percutaneous drainage, laparotomy with a partial colectomy was done on third day of admission. Post operative course was uneventful, and patient remained afebrile with normal WBCs all through his hospital stay. Pathology of the mass revealed an abscess cavity located 0.6 cm from the appendix and 0.5 cm from the terminal ileum, just deep to the colonic mucosa consistent with perforated cecal diverticulum with marked acute inflammation without any evidence of malignancy or an inflammatory bowel disease.

Discussion: Intra-abdominal abscess is a localized collections of pus that is confined by an inflammatory barrier i.e. omentum, inflammatory adhesions, or contiguous viscera, usually infected with both aerobic and anaerobic microbes. Its common etiologies are perforation of a diseased viscous, gangrenous cholecystitis, mesenteric ischemia with bowel infarction, pancreatitis or pancreatic necrosis progressing to pancreatic abscess, untreated penetrating trauma, and postoperative complications. Computed tomography is considered the best diagnostic imaging method with >95% accuracy. Treatment is with empirical antibiotics beginning prior to drainage. Percutaneous CT-guided catheter drainage has become the standard treatment of most intra-abdominal abscesses, which is effective in 90% of patients who have a single, unilocular abscess without any enteral communication. Surgical drainage becomes mandatory if residual fluid cannot be evacuated. Surgical approach may be either laparoscopic drainage or open (laparotomy) drainage.

Conclusion: Intra-abdominal abscess/abscesses are highly variable in presentation. Most of the patients have persistent abdominal pain, focal tenderness, spiking fever, prolonged ileus, leukocytosis, or intermittent polymicrobial bacteremia, but many of these classic features may be absent and merit constant vigilance.
DateTime: Fri Aug 20 15:00:22 2010

T cell tracking

2010-05-27T12:32:00.000-07:00

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20495571

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/05/100527101504.htm

Y N Sharma

2010-03-31T18:43:00.000-07:00

http://www.saikapiansabroad.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=268:a-diamond-in-the-rough&catid=32:memories-a-stories&Itemid=119

The Eternal Guru

2009-11-26T12:58:00.000-08:00

"The Eternal Guru"

The Confusion1

I had a confusion, a significant one.
Am I a Muslim? Am I a Christian?
Am I a Sikh? Am I a Hindu?
Am I from "One"? Am I from "None"?

I kill for survival, mistreat animals.
I uproot plants, isn’t I an animal?
I want to wear the best clothes, I kill worms by boiling them,
Am I a Sikh? Am I a Muslim?

I want to go to the rarest places,
I plunder nature endangering all races.
I do not care for my children,
Am I a Sikh? Am I a Christian?

I work less, I want more,
I bad mouth colleagues, act like a cheat. I never care, and blindly mistreat.
Others are inferior, I am full of wisdom.
Am I a Sikh? Am I a Muslim?

I make rules, like an emperor,
I make bombs, I explode them everywhere. I scare others, and even kill them.
Am I a Sikh? Am I a Muslim?

I make boundaries, and act to be national savior.
I make conspiracies, to weaken the neighbors.
I distort history, I poison education.
Am I a Sikh? Am I a Christian?

I use science, I know it works.
I cannot kill my fears, don't know why it hurts.
When will I meet my God, and get enlightened.

Am I from "One"? Am I from "None"?

The Contemplation

Confused in this world, I was randomly roaming,
Ignorant of Guru Granth2, and brain storming.
The science3 of the Guru Nanak, remained so near to me,
despite being born to a Sikh, I did not read thee.

Why I am supposed to be a Sikh, and wear swords,
A zillion confusions made me contemplate Guru's words.
As I kept reading, my mind felt calm,
Solutions to the puzzles, came as a balm.

I am an animal, an animal supreme,
And call myself wise, just to boost my esteem.
I will not be wise, till I shed the sins4 and practice virtues5,
I will remain an animal, till I try to find the truth6.

Truth is in the word of Guru,
Truth is its interpretation with full integrity7.
Truth is art, truth is science and truth is philosophy,
Truth is God, and truth is in His generosity8.

In The Guru's Praise

Guru Guru Guru Guru, Dhan dhan Granth Guru,
I read Guru, I need Guru, I heed Guru,
Bible, Quran, all Vedas Guru9, Dhan dhan Granth Guru.

Allah, Buddha, Jesus Guru10. Ravidas, Kabir, Farid Guru.
Nanak, Arjun, Gobind Guru. Dhan dhan Granth Guru.

Protector Guru, Instructor Guru. Japo, namo, WaheGuru.
Living11, unique12, supreme Guru. Mine, your, our Guru.
Dhan dhan Granth Guru, Dhan dhan Granth Guru.

Prayer to the Guru

Guru Granth, please give me strength, I should stand in truth's defense13.
May I fight with full determination, and spread your light into every nation.
I imbibe all the virtues14 and shed every sin15,
With Guru's blessings, may I win.

Please shower your blessings on every Sikh,
Help him meditate, live honestly and share success16.
Give him courage to follow your directions, pray to you and get instructions,
May he use your wisdom and promote universal integration17.

Index:

1. First state of the author’s mind which brought him closer to SGGS. On contemplating the Shabad Guru, author finds a pristine message, praises the Guru and prays to Him. 2. Nanak Singh Nishter: Authenticity of Sri Guru Granth Sahib is Beyond Challenge, Sikh Review, August 2009; 3. Nanak and Science; 4, 15. SGGS Page 600, Five Evils; 5, 14. Five Virtues ; 6. SGGS Page 20. Line 2; 7. SGGS Page 24, Line 1; 8. SGGS Page 25, Line 13; 9. SGGS Page 397, Line 7, SGGS Page 1350, Line 5; 10. Different names of God given by human beings, 11. Living Guru; 12.Unique Guru; 13. Inspiration from ‘Deh Siva Bar Mohe’; 16. Three pillars of Sikhism; 17. SGGS Page 611

Ctrl F + G Singh

2009-11-13T18:38:00.000-08:00

http://www.ipita-ixa2009.org/documents/IPITA-IXA_programme.pdf

All’s Not Well That Doesn’t End Well

2009-11-13T18:30:00.000-08:00

http://www.saikapiansabroad.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=201&Itemid=1

Saheli Computer Classes

2008-12-15T19:57:00.000-08:00

http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/emailAlbum?uname=gurbakhshishsingh&aid=5280230177160649473

The pictures from a class where I work as a volunteer teacher for adult computer literacy in US.

You may have problem in accessing pics, if I haven't sent you the link personally.I apologize!!

For link to the organization: http://www.saheliboston.org/index.html

Kach da glass

2008-09-29T08:52:00.000-07:00

Just skip first 50 seconds of the audio and then listen to it.

I would say this song is amongst billee paaji's best.

http://www.zshare.net/audio/1963817795ea57c1/

Billee Bhaaji

2008-09-28T13:55:00.000-07:00

http://www.youtube.com/user/gurbakhshish

Paradoxical Outcomes

2008-09-22T20:22:00.000-07:00

It started in my early twenties when I openly rejected first offer to partake Alcohol and has ever since continued the same vow to date (except one instance, as noted earlier). But it has in no ways deterred my jovial lifestyle and I had always been among the party boys. As an adaptation to the missing beverage, Regular Coke (or Classic Pepsi) became my party partner. Dancing to the beats with a glass of Pepsi in hands, it never happened that I was found to be in lesser spirits than those 'Talli-boys'.

Today after a Transplant Workshop at the BWH (one hospital), I actually realized that despite my 'Sacred Vow 'I have done nothing good to my body as in the long run as I just replaced intake of one addiction with another i.e. Coke above Beer. There has been no gains as in pursue of preventing Cirrhosis I have only ended up promoting atherosclerosis unknowingly and meanwhile also lost the opportunity of enjoying pro-cardiac effects of Wine.

30 minutes prior to this 'realization' I had more to worry. One friend was dictating the role of Carbon Monoxide (at conc. of 150 ppm) in preventing the transplant rejection and also improving Cardiovascular function. Indirectly, it wont be too early to say that this Harvard study will be followed by more of them about the role of 'Smoking{may be in smaller doss} (as it produces CO) in preventing Cardiovascular deaths'. Does it mean that I will have to repent one day for being a non-smoker, although the science of today believes that 'Smoking is the leading cause of Morbidity among humans '. Despite this kin, I have no doubts in believing that the studies finding the protective roles of Smoking will be receiving Mega-dollars in funding and unlimited Propagandized Marketing.

Once again, the fate of one out of many lessons I learned from my parents have been found to be paradoxical, although I still continue to believe in the original manuscript. It makes me wonder once again about an honest existence of dishonest God, who created life in one of his whims and has since tried enough to end its own creations.

Home

2008-09-11T18:32:00.000-07:00

Courtesy: Google Earth

Boston Marathon

2008-06-14T17:45:00.000-07:00

Inspirational moment to see the determination defying age.

Not just a few in number, they exceeded 75,000

I as an audience in this drama of life!!

Visakhi Parade NY

2008-06-14T17:42:00.000-07:00

Nature braves Nature

2008-06-13T16:06:00.000-07:00

Boston Storm

2008-06-13T14:40:00.000-07:00

Decriminalise Prostitution

2008-05-23T11:36:00.001-07:00

It’s good we as society are accepting Aarushi’s murder in Noida to be the consequence of male prejudice in society which prefer a honorable death for the females than allowing her a extra-indulgent life. Probably that’s why I can see some sane blogs in air criticizing this immaturely heinous act.

These type of individual acts of impatience have been happening in past and will continue to happen due the silent changes taking in the value system of our society. Some because of so called dark customs of past and others because of so called over bright expectations of future. Thus, I choose to keep this discussion in my private domain to think and adjust my life as per my experiences, just expecting myself to be a good human in the end.

However, what is of prime importance for us in the society as a whole is to open up and give all humans their right to choose mating partner especially for those females who are surviving outside the family system of our society without adding moral obligations. I am talking about the Legalization of female prostitution by the moral brigade fighting inside the corridors of power. To end a personal and male moral bias I would like to extend my request for adding male prostitution to this legal action.

It makes no sense to force the women and men who fed up of our system to follow the practices of our system. It has been rightly pointed out by mature friends that “Arushi’s father must have let her pass through the bad moments of night and taken her into confidence later on to change for the better than finishing her story at first instance”. Similarly won’t it make a better sense if we as a collective society allow the women in prostitution to go through their bad times and meanwhile trying to build confidence in them for the society to come back and become a part of it rather than incarcerating and stigmatizing them for their failure in life.

Instead of blaming Aarushi’s mother “Sati Vrata” for letting her husband silently go through these heinous acts shouldn’t we be blaming every single women in the Indian society who wants her morality not to be contaminated by the legal “Kulta’s ”around her sight and thus paradoxically end up getting these helpless women murdered directly and indirectly by those in power. Imagine if Arushi’s mother had a open clarity with her husband’s choices then she would have been the first informant of his habits and not the domestic help whose intention would have been nothing more than some rupees and some free sex.

Fortunately, in Aarushi’s drama one criminal (domestic help) had been killed by another criminal who has been also caught but at heavy cost of one tender life and three different families (Arushi’s, domestic help's and her father’s lover’s).

But nature is not so kind every time. It does not give a chance to the Illegal prostitutes to kill either the pimps or the pimp seekers. To add on their problems are the Human faced animals in disguise of Khaki and White clothes.

Won’t it make a bigger and wiser sense if we let every Aarushi to make her choices and parent her rather than brutally murdering her?

E-Back Family

2008-05-19T20:49:00.000-07:00

There should be no word as “Caste” in modern day vocabulary of an Indian. It depicts the weakness in our system to finish the weaknesses it was born with.

Letting the word “Caste” pass to the future generations will mean that we died without finishing the weaknesses our parents gave us in inheritance.

The bigger disaster happening in today’s society is the failure of humanity to prevail over the animal side of human brain. Experience has shown that although our human side tends to being yet everlasting changes but with a short span of life and animal laws of procreation we as individuals keep sailing in this tide of animosity.

Great men like Nanak took an opposite direction to society of their times fruitfully stamped their impressions forever. It took likes of M K Gandhi to realize that morality should prevail in our actions yet you, we and I often tend to overrule him.

The ideologies of separatism whether soft or hard can guide most of our decisions if allowed to be commanded by animal instincts. Political parties have slowly allowed the faithful ideologies of the nationhood to be infiltrated by such attitudes. Call it as the general degrading of our values in this universal tide of entropy or the inability of us mortals to fight with the disease of materialistic passions of which “Power” is supreme.

Reservation System in it core was designed by wise forefathers to fight with the weaknesses they were born with but with the demise of its vanguards Animal brain has has used it to “Divide and Rule”. Time is ripe when we must use our human brain and humane technology to guide one balanced policy or be ready to loose the hard earned gains of humane democracy to a future Jungle Raj. It will be playground where there will be more Mandals and Maha-Mayawati’s reincarnating forever and either “softly” or “hardly” will keep trying to convince the weakest animals that they is the only right Cheetah’s and rest everyone is a brutal animal.

Abolition of use of word “caste” while taking any future decision of India would be the first of a series of such steps. We should quickly realize that animal hindsight of an individual don’t let individuals think beyond the immediate family. “Nepotism” needs to be officially recognized as the enemy no. one and major designer of division in the society while keeping “Casteism” as a gold standard to be compared it with.

It must be followed by an end to words like SCs, STs and OBCs from our constituion while following any future policy decision. HAAS (Humanity’s affirmative action Score) should be designed keeping economically backward families (EBF) as a basic unit of our Society.

This should guide the nature of help needy strata of society must get at the critical stages of life of which “Universal and Quality Higher Secondary School Education should be a primary goal” and followed by competition among needy for the State sponsored graduation and allowing competition within the society as a whole for Post graduate education and any other employment opportunities.

If our lawmakers don’t act fast, then we all will be regressing back to the India of times in which British thought India as an easy prey to invade. Naxalites, Jihadism, and Modism are the outcomes of “Separatism” I want to fight by making everyone one understand that the major enemy of your society is not Casteism but our personal vested interests which run through Families.

Never Flamingeos

2008-05-10T18:07:00.000-07:00

There is a species of birds mostly found in Southern Africa called Lesser Flamingos. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_Flamingo I dont know the reason behing calling them with this name but I firmly believe that full care might have been taken in giving them one suitable name. Poor man's son is usually called "Bechara" in India so these less important fellows might have been categorically called "Lesser",by more important Animal Sapiens.

To me they not only signify the spirit of Evolution whose final outcome is a selfish Homo Sapien's but they are also one endangered species in reality . Actually in true sense they seem to be the Ambassadors of Africa. They live on brackish waters and come back to their homes just once in a year to breed and soon their situation will be like the most of the African Men and Women living in refugee camps or brackish waters who might one day come to their home and find themselves to be in the death trap.

As per the latest rumors from the most unimportant people (whom even Indian's dont consider Important) one of their national treasures is in danger. http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jul2007/2007-07-18-02.aspIt has been pointed out by the environmentalists that newly proposed Chemical factory in Tanzania near lake Natron would change the name of this species to Never Flammingoes

This issue might not hurt the Indian Voters because its not an issue like Nandigram or Sirmur where poor farmers are loosing battle to Corporates but it will definitely put the credentials of so called environment friendly Tata Group that is boasting for the its environment friendly Tata Nano al-round on this earth.

Unfortunately their is one more thing that is hurting me now days is the complete absence of any media coverage about this possible collusion between Indian Corporates and Greedy govt. of Tanzania back home.

We Indians were all so outraged when Coca Cola refused to treat us with the same standards as they practice in the western world. Just ponder and think how outraged would be the people of these poor nations when our corporates start treating their resources as trash. Is Sunita Narain listening!!

Down today

2008-05-09T09:04:00.000-07:00

It has been over 17 years when left my home to come to the boarding school. In my earlier days I was taught that certain things on earth are Untouchable(no other word describes my feelings). Most importantly Alcohol, Smoke, Drugs and Girls:-)

Although with teh passage of years Girls was the first untouchable I had tried to touch and before concluding "Girls are a necessary evil".

But on all other fronts I had been very rigid. I remember the days when I was just a kid and I ended up lecturing the masses at Saikap when I watched floods of mob mentality and Daru.

But today I decided to give up even when no one was asking me to drink. It was about 10-15 ml of Red Wine in at least 10-15 sips.

I don't know how to really describe the taste. It was so weird and toxic.I am surprised that people still drink it with so much dedication.

One friend said "You seem to have lost your Virginity". I was an interesting remark, but its not what is worrying but its the fear that in future i wont be able to contest Padda bhaaji's champagne.Strange though, I have decided to contest it again.

UnIndian Expat

2008-05-08T16:19:00.001-07:00

I was on my way to my hospital..

A woman (35+) boarded the bus..

She came near my seat and said "Can I sit with u?"

Me: Sure..

I waslooking towards the mirror and she started murmuring something..

XX: ??????? weather ... looks good...

(It was raining outside)..

XX: You look to be an Indian..(She was looking Indian too)

Me: Yeah..

XX: If it does not rain there will be droughts

Me: May not be here..

XX: Why

Me: It's a coastal area..

XX: Are you a Sikh..

Me: Yeah..

XX: (loudly from now on)..all Sikhs are idiots.. their brains are empty...pt. Nehru made some schools for u..so u studied otherwise u all would have been taxi drivers..( i kept silently listening)
u r terrorists.. and some more expletives..

..I was thinking why is she uninhibitedly speaking this b******t

... Anyways I m a quite person now days..

XX: u killers.. u ........ u r all in Canada ..NY..CA.. keep your chopped hair with u..Its good Bush chopped your hair..

I was thinking she is either mentally challenged.. but she had wide knowhow of Sikhs..so i thought she must be a Hindu hurt in Punjab's violent days..

Me: (in low note) are u Hindu..r u from India..

XX: i m from Massachusetts.

XX: continuing with more expletives... khalistan.. Indira..Nehru..u filth..

Me: although i was now thinking to call 911 and tesch her a lesson.. but i choose to ask her lowly.. Can u please shut up..

XX: why should I shut up..and started smiling..

.. for next 5 minutes she was quite..

I wanted to change seat ..but due to little space I kept sitting..

...and...... as the bus stopped she quickly moved away..

One guy asked: Did u know her already?

Me: No...

Guy: Why u dint speak..

Me: God bless her! and I moved towards my office..

I went few steps to my hospital and literally was left crying.

Mother Earth

2008-05-05T06:33:00.000-07:00

The recent cyclone in Burma is not just an isolated event even to a common man like me but it is looking that the destiny of Earth has been written. Though, I must blame it it on the the intellectuals who by their intricate algorithms are making the end appear more painful to me otherwise I would have just instantaneously finished with everyone else, without any fear for the days to come.

Here is what they preach..http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/0123-01.htm

How can I can also benefit earth by reading the work of these environmentalists and scientists. It would be possible only if the BIGGER Animals try to act on their teachings, SMALLER ones like me can only spread more fear.

But unfortunately in this battle of saving Mother Earth it seems that every one is pretending to be a smaller animal and passing the baton of being a more dangerous animal to the other persons.

I say that its not me who's dangerous its my best friend who is in the habit of wasting more electricity and paper. He says its not us Indians who are dangerous its the Americas who's per-capita consumption of food is 5 times more than Indians. American's (notably Ms. Rice and Mr. Bush in the recent days have accused the changing habits of Indians and Chinese for the Food Crises. (As per WHO "Food crises is a Silent natural disaster"). Indians and Chinese are saying that we are only finishing the bigger Fish in OCEAN so that we can safely swim in water when the Ocean water rises.

Indo- China and Brazil(bric) will not cut the consumption because they are in the incipient stage of Economic Progress. BRIC are unanimously saying America should cut its fuel consumption and they will not.

Red Comrades in India have decided that they will finish the remaining coal and oil only in India and not let US use it by refusing to sign the nuclear deal till they are not dead by suffocation due to toxic gases or by flooding in the Ocean Water.

The Researchers are warning that the cyclone's, draught and Tsunamiy will increase in number and ice will be almost gone and soon there will be 6 continents but they will never cut energy consumption by refusing to repeat the experiments which have been already done.

Interestingly, no one has decided to take axn although we have unanimously decided to warn each other but continue with the profligate habits. Do you think that the cities which have gone dark for an hour have cut the energy consumption or do you think that people of US have cut down fuel consumption despite signing Kyoto Protocol. Definitely US will cut down CO2 emission by buying more Green house credits.

I still feel I cant save my mother by changing my habits because I have been I the habit of seeing my mother die before me, although I know that Mother earth is not a good mother and she will also take me with her into the grave.

DO YOU THINK YOU CAN SAVE YOUR MOTHER???

Fear of Death

2008-04-28T13:30:00.001-07:00

Should I have a fear of death or not. Well if I go by the words of my FAther I must fear death. He quotes Guru Gobind Singh saying that fear of death keeps us away from many daily evils and keeps our mind near to God.

Fortunately or Not-fortuantely I have got many chances which made me to imagine that I will die soon. Although for a doctor it could be just called as Occupational Hazard where a single needle stick of contaminated blood can gift him with HIV or some thing more or less dangerous.

The most recent one is putting me on the risk of suspeceted Meningoencephalitis, which can be lethal if not treated properly.

Last time it was the suspected HIV positive spill of blood on the eyes that put me into agonizing time during internship days. I still remember those times when I secretly used to get my blood tested in an private clinic for Rs.300 every time, out of the my parent hospital although it would have been free for me to get it tested again and again at GMCH. I was sincerely fearing a disclosure of the status in
GMCH community if I was found positive and to add on the fear was non-availability of Prophylactic medicine at GMCH

Today I am going through the same state again. Body seems to feel the symptoms it should not feel although I know that I am a low risk contact today.

The list of undone jobs is flashing through mind again and again and to add on the pain is the worry of parents.Fortunately this time family is not as serious issue as it was in internship because now the parents have more settled family to take care of.

As routine, religious introspection is going through mind. This time out of the DABDA phases of death denial is more prominent as compared to the GMCH prick when it was the anger against Nursing Staff which was more prominent because she had intentionally changed the name of her husband to hide his ? HIV positive status.

Instead of the feeling of dying a useless death at time in internship today I am having some gut feeling of achievement without falling in life to this Animal world.

Nothing else. I must wait and watch, if I can survive to read my blog again..:-) after a few days..The probability is favoring me this time as I am taken care of by best physicians.

Indian Secret

2008-03-27T09:47:00.000-07:00

http://www.saikapiansabroad.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=125&Itemid=1